ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS  

TASK 1

 Look at the five descriptions of different kinds of synthesis of references from more than one source (a-e).  Then read the short extracts of academic writing that follow.  Choose the description that best suits each extract.

 (a)       A simple presentation of supporting information from two sources.

 (b)       A presentation of several differing viewpoints with some added comment by the writer.

 (c)       An incorporation of several viewpoints which are then challenged by the writer.

 (d)       Opposing viewpoints from two principal sources which are incorporated to support a point made by the writer.

 (e)       Several viewpoints which are used to discredit or weaken a point made by the writer.

 Extract 1

T.H. Huxley (7) claimed that ‘science is nothing but trained and organised common sense’, a view supported by Whitehead (17).  It has, however, been strongly argued that scientific method cannot possibly be based on common sense.  Wolpert (19) points out that simple observation of everyday life phenomena will not lead us to scientifically valid explanations.  In fact, he goes as far as to maintain that ideas which fit common sense will not be scientifically correct.  One might conclude that one reason why scientific discovery was so slow for so many centuries was precisely because it tended to avoid imaginative speculation far removed from commonplace thinking.

 Extract 2

According to Popper (1968:172), scientific discovery occurs in an ‘open society’ with a standard of objectivity that is rigorous and unfailingly reliable.  Kuhn (1962:166), on the other hand, suggests that the scientific community is a totalitarian one.  It is apparent from his view that a theory which does not conform to a prevailing orthodoxy will be rejected , even if it seems acceptable along the lines of the sort of criteria Popper would adhere to for scientific validity.

Fleck (1935), whose ideas strongly influenced Kuhn, acknowledged that a scientist such as Einstein may have gone about his scientific investigation in quite a unique way.  However, his view was the significance of Einsein’s contribution to physics could be understood only in the light of the shared objectives and standards of the academic community in physics (Toulmn, 1986:276).

 Extract 3

The ‘sovereignty at bay’ thesis of multinationals maintained that while the expansion of these companies constrained the power of nation-states, the overall effects of such expansion was internationally beneficial (Vernon, 1968, 1971).  Two observers, Ball (1967) and Johnson (1970), even went as far as to suggest that the recognition of the benefits of multinationals might spearhead moves for world economic integration that would lead to further erosion of the nation-state.

Subsequent experience has shown that nation-states are capable of considerable resilience against multinationals.  Moreover, the idea of international economic integration in a world in which the 500 largest multinational corporations control 70 per cent of total world trade may have somewhat different implications from what was envisaged by observers in a more optimistic era.

 

 Extract 4

 As far back as 1860, Herbert Spencer observed that laughter released tension and had good effects on human health.  This view was supported by Cousins (3), who wrote a best-selling book describing how he cured himself from a chronic disease of the spine.  He attributed his recovery to watching films that made him laugh and large intakes of vitamin C.  This led him to speculate that the beneficial properties of laughter were related to pituitary secretions known as endorphins which reduce pain as well as inducing euphoria. 

 

Extract 5

 It is very tempting to assume that the pagan mysteries were easy to understand on account of their widespread popularity.  It may be that on the level of a popular initiation ritual, such festivals as the one at Eleusis had symbols that appeared to be clear and certain.  However, Wind is quick to make the distinction between such meanings and what he describes as ‘figurative’ and ‘magic’ ones (16).  The revival of interest in the mysteries that is very evident in the writings of Italian Renaissance thinkers certainly seemed to favour a ‘figurative’ understanding, even if a range of views existed.  One need not go as far as Pico della Mirandola, who appeared to insist that mysteries must be obscure to be profound.  Calcagnini dismissed the case for deliberate obscurity while acknowledging the wisdom of riddles (Wind, 20).