TASK 1
Look
at the five descriptions of different kinds of synthesis of references from more
than one source (a-e). Then read
the short extracts of academic writing that follow.
Choose the description that best suits each extract.
(a) A simple presentation of
supporting information from two sources.
(b)
A presentation of several differing viewpoints with some added comment by
the writer.
(c) An incorporation of several
viewpoints which are then challenged by the writer.
(d)
Opposing viewpoints from two principal sources which are incorporated to
support a point made by the writer.
(e)
Several viewpoints which are used to discredit or weaken a point made by
the writer.
Extract
1
T.H.
Huxley (7) claimed that ‘science is nothing but trained and organised
common sense’, a view supported by Whitehead (17).
It has, however, been strongly argued that scientific method cannot
possibly be based on common sense. Wolpert
(19) points out that simple observation of everyday life phenomena will
not lead us to scientifically valid explanations.
In fact, he goes as far as to maintain that ideas which fit common
sense will not be scientifically correct.
One might conclude that one reason why scientific discovery was so
slow for so many centuries was precisely because it tended to avoid
imaginative speculation far removed from commonplace thinking. |
Extract
2
According
to Popper (1968:172), scientific discovery occurs in an ‘open society’
with a standard of objectivity that is rigorous and unfailingly reliable.
Kuhn (1962:166), on the other hand, suggests that the scientific
community is a totalitarian one. It
is apparent from his view that a theory which does not conform to a
prevailing orthodoxy will be rejected , even if it seems acceptable along
the lines of the sort of criteria Popper would adhere to for scientific
validity. Fleck
(1935), whose ideas strongly influenced Kuhn, acknowledged that a
scientist such as Einstein may have gone about his scientific
investigation in quite a unique way.
However, his view was the significance of Einsein’s contribution
to physics could be understood only in the light of the shared objectives
and standards of the academic community in physics (Toulmn, 1986:276). |
Extract
3
The
‘sovereignty at bay’ thesis of multinationals maintained that while
the expansion of these companies constrained the power of nation-states,
the overall effects of such expansion was internationally beneficial
(Vernon, 1968, 1971). Two
observers, Ball (1967) and Johnson (1970), even went as far as to suggest
that the recognition of the benefits of multinationals might spearhead
moves for world economic integration that would lead to further erosion of
the nation-state. Subsequent
experience has shown that nation-states are capable of considerable
resilience against multinationals. Moreover,
the idea of international economic integration in a world in which the 500
largest multinational corporations control 70 per cent of total world
trade may have somewhat different implications from what was envisaged by
observers in a more optimistic era. |
Extract
4
As
far back as 1860, Herbert Spencer observed that laughter released tension
and had good effects on human health.
This view was supported by Cousins (3), who wrote a best-selling
book describing how he cured himself from a chronic disease of the spine. He attributed his recovery to watching films that made him
laugh and large intakes of vitamin C.
This led him to speculate that the beneficial properties of
laughter were related to pituitary secretions known as endorphins which
reduce pain as well as inducing euphoria. |
Extract
5
It
is very tempting to assume that the pagan mysteries were easy to
understand on account of their widespread popularity.
It may be that on the level of a popular initiation ritual, such
festivals as the one at Eleusis had symbols that appeared to be clear and
certain. However, Wind is
quick to make the distinction between such meanings and what he describes
as ‘figurative’ and ‘magic’ ones (16).
The revival of interest in the mysteries that is very evident in
the writings of Italian Renaissance thinkers certainly seemed to favour a
‘figurative’ understanding, even if a range of views existed.
One need not go as far as Pico della Mirandola, who appeared to
insist that mysteries must be obscure to be profound.
Calcagnini dismissed the case for deliberate obscurity while
acknowledging the wisdom of riddles (Wind, 20). |